How to Write a Causal Analysis Essay Topics, Structure

Don’t worry if you have been given a causal analysis essay to write and have no idea how to start. We have put together an easy to follow guide for you to be done as fast as possible! Contents Causal analysis essay definition Causal analysis essay outline Choose a topic Write a Thesis statement Create an Introduction Body Paragraphs Conclusion Tips for writing a causal analysis essay Causal analysis essay definition The aim of a causal analysis paper is to show either the consequences of certain causes and effects and vice versa. This is best explored through an essay in which the question â€Å"why?† is answered. The overall conclusion is usually intended to either prove a point, speculate a theory or disprove a common belief. This could also be explained through a philosophical narrative by saying it tries to answer the â€Å"why† in our lives by clarifying the world in which we inhabit. So, therefore the causal analysis can be said to help us comprehend the complex series of events that shape our life. To simplify further into an equation this is how you could write it: Check out our Causal analysis essay sample! Topic: Ways in Which VR Can Change Our Lives Causal analysis essay outline Plan out an outline to make your writing easier and faster then all the elements of the article will come together better in the end. Choose a topic To start it is best to decide on a topic you wish to explore and is something that has meaning or is a subject area already known about. Think carefully about the causes and effects that could transpire from a given area or topic and also perhaps something that is controversial and open to discussion. It may not be possible to write fully about both the causes and effects so keep in mind which will be the stronger point to include in the paper. Possible causal analysis essay topics: The effects of drug legalization on drug addiction What causes society to be racist and possible preventions The causes that led up to world war II What causes people to develop phobias Why do humans need to sleep What are the chemical causes of falling in love Why did Donald Trump win the 2016 election What caused the French revolution Causal Analysis essay on divorce Write a Thesis statement After the chosen topic is decided it is possible to plan out what the causal analysis will find out by creating the thesis statement. This should be summarized into one or two sentences and focus on a particular subject area that can be explored. Try not to limit the essay too much by including too much detail or using language that prevents exploring further possibilities. An example of a thesis statement could look like: Governments around the world are meant to have our best interests at heart, yet why do their policies anger many and cause protests. Is this related to bad choice of politicians and political voting systems used and what other factors can be involved? Create an Introduction It is a good idea to put the thesis at the end of the introduction which should give some basic information on the topic. You should start with a â€Å"hook† or opening sentence that will grab the reader's attention and want them to continue reading. An interesting quote or statistic can be a good example or something that will make the reader think about the topic. Body Paragraphs Create every paragraph to illustrate one cause or effect chain and write it logically. Use examples to demonstrate the thinking process and the specific chain of causes or effects. Make sure each chain is set out chronologically to make everything clear to the reader. Always clarify the cause to effect or vice versa relationship instead of making comparisons as this will make your statements stronger. Conclusion At the end of the paper include a concluding paragraph which should be a summary of the connections that have been discovered on significant cause-effect relationship. Remember to finish the paper with something that is thought provoking or memorable that highlights the conclusions within the article. For example, if the paper was about World war II, say due to these causes or effects that a third world war is possible if these factors are not kept in check. Tips for writing a causal analysis essay Keep all the links. Do not leave out any links in the chain of causes and effects unless you are certain that the reader can make the correct connections. Leave any biases out. It is important to develop an honest essay to be impartial and not already have any prejudices. To be a credible writer and also make the audience believe in the analysis, the work should be from a neutral stance. Backup everything with sufficient evidence. Always give specific details and support with hard evidence. Never be vague with the connections in the chain and explain all the links. Don't oversimplify things. While it is needed to focus and limit the analysis to particular points of the thesis, do not be too quick to assign cause and effect conclusions. Think carefully before making statements and do not jump to any false predictions before evaluating properly. Try not fall into the post hoc trap. This can be avoided by not making any errors in the logic used and carefully researching each link in the chain. This is a typical causal relationship error that links a previous subject in time just because it happened before. For example, coming to the conclusion that marijuana smokers will go on to smoke crack. This could be based on that crack smokers have tried marijuana before they tried crack but this is a false connection. With the same logic, it could said that cigarette smoking would lead to smoking crack and marijuana, but this is also post hoc fallacy. Avoid circular thought processes. Try not use thought processes that have no definite conclusion and just restate the thesis. Make new links and ideas that do not end at where the statement started, finish with a sense of conclusion. No time to research, don’t worry Come and visit Essay Service Blog where we have all the free guides written to make your writing process easier. If you do not have time for all the research and planning then why not order a custom essay from us. We have a dedicated team of expert writers from top academic backgrounds ready to complete your assignment so you can do more important things.

Gattaca - true hero essays

Gattaca - true hero essays WHO IS THE REAL HERO IN THIS FILM?..... A Hero is defined as a person who displays courage or noble qualities, or the main/principal character in a story, film or poem. This definition sums up Vincent/Jerome perfectly. Not only is he the character whom the movie is based on but too someone who shows courage, strength and persistence in achieving his dream. Vincent refused to play the hand he was dealt and with little hesitation went to all extremes to transform himself into a more superior member of society, a valid, Jerome Morrow. In doing so, a height adjustment was required and after going through the torturing procedure, the genetically made Jerome never questioned Vincents commitment and determination in pursuing his dream. When Vincent/Jeromes position as a navigator on the launch for Titan was confirmed, Vincent/Jerome and Eugene celebrated as all their hard work has paid off. As Eugene was getting put to bed, he slurred Im proud of you Vincent being the first time he publicly acknowledged all Vincent/Jerome had achieved. It is evident throughout the film that Eugene admires Vincent/Jeromes strength of mind in striving for his goal despite his genetic make-up and burden of imperfection. Vincent/Jerome proved many people wrong by out doing his potential as he wasnt satisfied with the fact he couldnt live like a valid. He had the willpower that Eugene lacked but didnt have the blood type that would allow his dream to come true, so they thought. Vincent/Jeromes parents believed they would out-live their unhealthy, godchild and the Janitor too believed that it was impossible for a natural birth such as Vincent/Jerome to be a part of Gattaca. It was Vincent/Jeromes courage and attitude towards life that defied the odds and made him succeed. He admitted he ...

The Ethical Questions Surrounding Vegetarianism Essay

The Ethical Questions Surrounding Vegetarianism - Essay Example Some choose the vegetarian lifestyle for religious reasons as they find it wrong to eat the flesh of animals. But for many, the decision to adhere to a vegetarian diet comes down not to a matter of nutrition, but a question of ethics. Vegetarians often cite their love for animals as a reason to reject a meat-eating lifestyle, claiming that slaughtering animals for the purposes of consumption is morally objectionable. Still others argue that meat consumption contributes to environmental issues such as pollution, deforestation, and the exploitation of natural resources in the interests of raising feed crops as opposed to more sustainable crops. Whatever the reason, the ethical dilemmas surrounding vegetarianism continue to foster debate among people who wholeheartedly embrace a meat-eating diet and those who condemn the consumption of meat as being morally and ecologically detrimental. It is important to note that there are several levels of vegetarianism by which one can decide to liv e. The catch-all term â€Å"Vegetarian† indicates that a person’s diet does not include the flesh of animals, but the label does allow that animal by-products, such as gelatin, dairy foods, and eggs, can be consumed. Within the vegetarian label, there are several sub-categories. â€Å"Lacto-ovo† (or â€Å"ovo-lacto†) vegetarians eat dairy and eggs, while â€Å"ovo-vegetarians† do not eat dairy, and â€Å"lacto-vegetarians† eschew eggs. There is even a category of dieters referred to as â€Å"pescetarians,† who consume fish and other seafood but no other meats (though many vegetarians do not consider pescetarianism to be â€Å"true† vegetarianism). â€Å"Vegan† is the one of the strictest forms of vegetarianism, as adherents do not eat meat or any animal by-product—this includes the aforementioned dairy and egg products, but also includes any animal-produced food such as honey. But there are offshoots of veganism t hat are even stricter: fruitarians, for example, only eat fruits, seeds, and nuts in an effort to avoid harming plant life, and su vegetarianism not only prohibits the consumption of animal products, but also forbids the eating of all varieties of onion and garlic—essentially, any vegetable that produces an odor. The decision about which path of vegetarianism an individual may take depends on several factors, including concerns about health and weight-related issues and religious beliefs—for example, su vegetarianism is synonymous in many parts of the world with the Buddhist faith. But arguably the greatest influences on a person’s decision to â€Å"go veggie† are questions of morality and ethical behavior. The predominant motivation for many vegetarians is the preservation of animal life. Many vegetarians believe that killing animals for the purpose of eating them is wrong, because animals are living creatures and should be afforded the same right to liv e as human beings. As David DeGrazia states, â€Å"[A]nimals are not mere resources for our use, playthings for our amusement, or even practicing grounds for good behavior towards other humans. They count for something in their own right† (148). Because animals have this â€Å"moral status† in our world, DeGrazia argues, â€Å"it’s wrong to cause extensive, unnecessary harm† to them (149). Abuse of animals is a hot-button topic. Whenever dogs or cats are shown in the aftermath of severe abuse, the public outcry can be deafening, with hundreds of people condemning the abusers while volunteering to shelter the defenseless animal. Yet there is generally not a similar outcry when it comes to the slaughter of animals for meat consumption, because many

The Tools and Techniques of Change Management Assignment

The Tools and Techniques of Change Management - Assignment Example The ability to accept a change is important for both individuals and organizations. For both brick-and-mortar and virtual organizations a human resources manager, who is in the unique position of ensuring the agility of the organization’s human capital, faces a lot of important issues which must be given consideration in order to achieve the strategic goals of the company. The important issues needed to be addressed are planned and unplanned change, global and economic change, political, legal, and social change, the role of human resources in virtual organizations and e-commerce, and the role of technology on the function of human resources. (Hughes 2007) The most vital issue facing human resources managers is the ability to gain strategic partnership. Gaining strategic partnership requires adding value to the organization through forecasting, planning, and adapting to the above changes and taking a proactive attitude in managing change. In both brick-and-mortar and virtual organizations, human resources are part of their strategic plans. Included in these plans are both planned and unplanned changes. Strategic leadership needs an understanding of when change is required in an organization. A strategic leader must be proactive instead of reactive. Thus, human resources should create a strategically managed vision for current and future conditions. In virtual organizations, change is a must if they want to succeed in a global, complex, and vague environment.  

Tornadoes - Failures of Leadership Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tornadoes - Failures of Leadership - Case Study Example There were 1000 deaths as a result of weather related calamities and 550 of those were a result of tornadoes (IEMA, 2012). While severe weather cannot be prevented, there is much that can be done with respect to being prepared and taking action to safeguard the public. The tornadoes of June 1, 2011 showed the lack of preparedness and failure of leadership at various levels. There had been many tornadoes which had had devastating effects on more than 6 states including New York, Oklahoma, Alabama and Georgia prior to June 1, 2011. There were gaps and failures witnessed in emergency preparedness systems in the prior tornadoes and still the June 1 tornadoes were no different (Smilowitz, 2011). This case study focuses on the June 1 tornadoes where in most of the communities struggled from miscommunication and chaos. This case study highlights the failure of leadership at numerous levels and lack of preparedness during the June 1 Tornadoes. It also makes various suggestions to overcome th ese failures. There were numerous areas where leadership was found wanting. There were communication issues between emergency responders and government officials and the collective communication system, of emergency responders and government officials, with citizens. The emergency personnel lacked the training and preparedness to handle a catastrophe of such nature and magnitude. The lack of preparedness of the emergency management was best put forward by Monson's Emergency Management Director, Evan Brassard when he said: â€Å"I think that emergency management had been on the back burner because it had been so long since a response of that nature was needed†. (Meiler & Russo, 2012) This statement clearly summarises the state of the emergency management program. The emergency management teams in place were unprepared for such an event. Emergency management teams and personnel need to train for such an event in foresight so that they can respond in the best possible way and no t wait for the need for such a response to arise in order to prepare. The following paragraphs will identify various aspects of emergency management that failed during the June 1 tornadoes. The first and foremost reaction or response to such a disaster is search and rescue. The responders at ground zero who are the most effective and the first to respond to a disaster did not have proper information that defined their capabilities and roles. These local responder teams consisted of numerous specialists who are experts in their own fields but lack the understanding of their role in the search and rescue team. Secondly, there was no proper co-ordination between the different teams. The inspection markings on structures were not consistent with different teams. Each team used its own structural marking systems that indicated the condition of the structure and its habitability. This lead to a lot of confusion as there were numerous agencies and teams working at once and each of them had their own marking system (WRHSAC, 2012). This could have been overcome if the leaders had taken initiative and be prepared for the situation. In future, this can be avoided by ensuring that the team members are briefed prior to the disaster about their capabilities and roles in search and rescue teams. Also a unified marking system must be put in place and ensured that all agencies and teams taking part are familiar with the unified system. Tornadoes of June 1 were not a single region event but a multi-regional and

Relevance of Psychology in Primary Health Care Delivery

Relevance of Psychology in Primary Health Care Delivery Critically discuss how an understanding of psychology can enhance the delivery of primary health care. (District Nursing) Essay The concept of psychology as relevant to district nursing and the primary healthcare team can be examined on a number of different levels. An understanding of psychology is clearly important to the nurse when she interprets a patient’s reaction to events in their personal illness trajectory. (Yura H et al. 1998). It is equally important as she considers her professional approach to the patient and the understanding of how a patient will react to the delivery and impact of healthcare, particularly in her considerations of how to achieve maximum patient compliance in any given therapeutic regimen. (Dean A. 2002).There are other, arguably less immediately obvious, ramifications of the impact of psychological implications in the delivery of primary health care when one considers the interactions and dynamics of the primary healthcare team and the interplay between various members of the team. In this essay we shall consider all of these implications. We start with the general plan that the topic of psychology in this context is potentially vast and for this reason we shall consider individual illustrative episodes in some detail in order to demonstrate an overall understanding of the area. The perception of any given situation and indeed, the evaluation of the probabilities that arise from it, are generally dependent on its presentation. This in turn gives rise to differences and variations in the number and scope of the possible outcomes from that situation. This is the so called Theory of Rational Choice (De Martino B et al. 2006). The perception of a situation is dependent on its â€Å"framing†. It therefore follows that the outcome is also dependent on the same concept of framing of the presentation. This has great relevance to our question, as the District Nurse can make decisions that are influenced by the â€Å"framing† of the presentation by the patient, but more significantly, she can seek to modify the decisions that a patient ultimately makes by framing her presentation of the situation in a number of different ways. There is a substantial evidence base in the literature which cites examples of how decisions can be changed or even reversed if t hey are presented with different emphasis on different factors in the presentation (van Osch S M C et al. 2006). A full consideration of the implications of this statement will suggest that these psychological concepts will have a direct bearing on other professional considerations such as autonomy and other ethical issues. (Hendrick, J. 2000). How can a patient be considered to be making a truly autonomous decision if that decision is being influenced by the abilities of a nurse to â€Å"frame† the presentation of the relevant factors in order to suggest that one outcome is better than another? (Green J et al. 1998). How can a patient be considered to be â€Å"empowered and educated† about a course of treatment if the nurse has been selective in the way that treatment has been explained to the patient? (Sugarman J Sulmasy 2001). We do not presume to suggest that such concepts are necessarily wrong. It may be entirely reasonable for a nurse to use her professional skill and judgement to suggest to a patient that one particular course of action is preferable to another by framing the presentation in such a way that the patient is guided towards a certain decision. In a commonly experienced clinical situation such as a frightened patient with an extensive skin wound to the leg which clearly requires suturing and who is saying that they don‘t want anything to be done, we could probably all agree that it would be quite appropriate for a nurse to suggest that the procedure of suturing is not very painful and will give a good cosmetic result whereas to leave the wound open will give rise to infection and other difficulties. From an analytical viewpoint, this approach could be viewed as detracting from the patient’s autonomy and ability to make their own valid consent. (Gillon. R. 1997). A pragmatist mi ght equally suggest that the nurse is employing valid psychological principles in her professional desire to achieve what is probably the best outcome for the patient (Coulter A. 2002) One of the major areas that we shall consider in this appreciation of the significance of psychology in the delivery of healthcare, is that of attitude of those delivering the particular intervention to the patients concerned. This area is examined in commendable detail by the paper by Johansson (K et al. 2002) which specifically considered the effectiveness of the delivery of alcohol awareness programmes in a group of problem drinkers. The reason that we have selected this paper for an initial consideration is that, unusually for a research paper, it does not simply consider the efficacy of a particular healthcare package, but it reviews and critically analyses the attitudes of the healthcare professionals on the overall outcomes with specific focus on their readiness to participate in such a venture. This is seminal to the major thrust of this essay and therefore merits a detailed examination. In essence, the entry cohort to this study was a collection of about 150 primary healthcare team workers who could potentially be involved in the delivery of an alcohol awareness programme. Each was asked to fill in a questionnaire which was designed to evaluate a personal profile of the respondent and covered areas such as: experiences with patients with alcohol-related health problems, knowledge and perceived capacity concerning early identification and intervention, attitudes towards the role of primary care staff in early identification and intervention and current intervention methods in use at the health centre. The results are interesting insofar as there was general agreement that the likelihood of a patient generating or triggering an enquiry into their alcohol usage was most likely to be when issues relating to the alcohol-related health-risks were perceived by the healthcare professionals. The relevance of the psychological aspects of such an enquiry became clear when it was found that nurses were more likely to enquire than the doctors in the sample and that on average, nurses tended to drink less alcohol than doctors. (Dihn-Zarr, T et al. 1999) Those who drank the least were more likely to be concerned about the health risks than those who drank more. Clearly the effects of alcohol in any individual patient are specific, but the willingness of a healthcare professional to instigate healthcare measures to minimise the health-related effects of alcohol appears to be dependent on their own attitudes towards alcohol and this may be reflected in their own levels of consumption. There is an old adage that the definition of an alcoholic is a patient who drinks more than their doctor. (Fleming, M et al. 1999). In the light of this study, this comment may not be as flippant as it initially appears. In alcohol-related problems, there is frequently an element of denial, both in terms of alcohol intake and its effects. (Herbert, C et al. 1997). If the healthcare professional involved has a degree of denial of their own intake, clearly this will have repercussions on their presentation of the problem to the patient and their subsequent evaluation and willingness to invoke therapeutic or interventional measures for that patient. (Kaner, E. F. S et al. 1999) Other significant factors that contributed to the likelihood of a healthcare professional instigating therapeutic measures were found to be their individual perception of their own degree of knowledge on the subject, both in terms of the effects of alcohol on the body and also in terms of the interventions that were available. (Aalto, M. et al. 2001) Many nurses expressed the fact that they were concerned that patients might react negatively to such enquiries and that this would affect the degree of patient empathy. Doctors appeared to be generally more confident about handling the possibility of a negative reaction. The same study pointed to the fact that it appears that such fears were unfounded in reality, as the same proportion of patients reacted in a negative way in both groups. >From this brief overview, it can be seen that psychology plays a role at many different levels in what is basically a fairly straightforward healthcare professional / patient interchange, and the attitudes of both patient and healthcare professional can have a profound impact on the eventual outcome of the care package for the individual patient. The paper itself makes the comment that: Nurses appear to be an unexploited resource, in need of training and support. Nurses may need to be convinced that an active role does not interfere with the nurse–patient relationship. Building teams of GPs and nurses in primary care might enhance the dissemination of alcohol prevention into regular practice. A further psychological input that is relevant in this area is the perception of the healthcare professional of just how effective the intervention that is proposed is likely to be. A previous paper on the same subject (Andrà ©asson S et al. 2000), concluded that healthcare professionals were much more likely to recommend a healthcare intervention that they had personally experienced or witnessed as successful, with greater frequency than one which had been shown to have a secure evidence base in published literature. The paper concludes with the suggestion that specific training in the subject needs to be implemented and this training not only needs to address the knowledge gap that has been identified, but also the belief systems and attitudes of the healthcare professionals in the primary healthcare team in order that it can reach its maximum potential. Although this paper was targeted and written in relation to a specific alcohol related intervention, it is reasonable to assume that the selected comments cited in this essay are sufficiently general to apply to most specific health related interventions and we will consider and explore other psychological rationales in specific relation to Health Promotion initiatives together with the inferences that can be drawn in relation to team building issues at greater length later in this essay. One of the major areas where psychology is relevant to the success (or otherwise) of a particular treatment is encapsulated in the concept of empowerment and education. (Howe and Anderson 2003). The patient who is both empowered and educated by the nurse will approach their illness trajectory in a completely different psychological frame of mind than one who is not. Time spent in explanation to a patient of the parameters and reasons for their treatment is rarely wasted. (Holzemer W et al. 1994). Marinker’s concept of the differentiation of compliance and concordance. (Marinker M.1997) is particularly useful in this respect. Although his original paper was written with specific regard to the taking of medication, the principles that it expounds are sufficiently general that they are now commonly extrapolated to cover most aspects of the interaction between the healthcare professionals and the patient. The patient who understands why he is being asked to undergo a particular th erapeutic regimen is far more likely to complete is successfully than one who is simply told what to do. This can be encapsulated in the professional advice on the subject from the RCN Patients are as fully involved as practicable in the formulation and delivery of their care (e.g. through the use of self-care plans) Where appropriate, patients are offered treatments other than medication Treatment plans are individually tailored for each patient Patients are involved, unless impracticable, in any decisions about referral Where practicable, patients are informed of the reasons for referral to specialists or other professionals (cited in CSAG 1999) This element of compliance is frequently cited in many of the tools of quality indication that are used in formal studies in this area. The degree to which a patient complies (or concords) with instructions can be viewed as a measure of success of the presentation of that treatment directly to the patient. (Campbell S M et al. 2000) As we have intimated in the introduction, the title of this essay can be interpreted at several different levels. In this segment we shall consider the impact of formal psychology services in primary health care. The rationale for our consideration of this topic specifically lies in the fact that an understanding of basic psychological principles is fundamental in allowing the nurse to appreciate the elements of treatment commonly undertaken in a psychology clinic. The excellent and informative article by Sobel (A B et al. 2001) provides a good starting point for this consideration. In practical terms, the average attendance at a psychology clinic is about five outpatient attendances. (Arndorfer, R. E et al. 1999). This means that the contact of a patient with the primary healthcare team is likely to outnumber the attendances at the clinic over a period of time. To give a specific example, it is clearly important for the nurse, who may come into contact with (for example) an anorexic adolescent, to understand the issues revolving around body dysmorphia, self-image enhancement and self-esteem (Lavigne, J. V. et al. 1999) if they have been undergoing treatment, if the nurse is to consider giving any degree of holistic consideration to whatever problems are being presented to her at the time. It is clearly of little value, if requested to give advice on the subject of weight loss (which is a common enquiry at nurse-run clinics), (Hogston, R et al. 2002) . to attempt to give such advice without a background knowledge of the psychological principles that have been employed in trying to restore the patient’s eating habits to a more normal pattern. (La Greca, A. M. 1997). Equally the parents of a child who is undergoing treatment for enuresis may have questions that they have not felt able to ask at a busy clinic and these may be presented to the practice nurse. A background knowledge of current treatment (both interventional and behavioural) is clearly vital t o being able to answer the questions with a degree of professional confidence. Another area where the nurse’s knowledge of psychological issues may be important is that, given the fact that a comparatively high number of patients default from follow up before being formally discharged, the nurse should know that psychological treatment is rarely successful if the â€Å"less than optimum† course of treatment is completed. (Sobel, A. B et al. 2001). Encouragement to return to complete the full course may be a useful remit for the nurse confronted by a patient in this situation. It follows that a sensitive exploration of the reasons for default my also be helpful and a knowledge of the subject is clearly helpful here as well. The patient who has defaulted from follow up through apathy needs completely different handling from the patient who has defaulted because of a resurgence of painful or difficult memories during a course of cognitive behavioural therapy. (Street, L. L.et al. 2000). In the latter case, empathetic handling is of great importance a s the issues involved may have a deep significance for the patient and completion of the course may be fundamental to a complete resolution of the issues involved. (Mitchell M C et al. 2004). When dealing with the patient who has specific emotional or psychological issues, the professional nurse would commonly have to employ a degree of psychological understanding which may be deeper than in many other cases for both of the reasons set out above. Let us now consider a different aspect of psychology and its relevance to nursing practice in primary care. A large proportion of the work of the district nurses can be taken up with the care of the dying patient. The dying, or terminally ill patient typically has a psychological profile that is quite different to the â€Å"average† patient. This was explored in the fascinating and very well written paper by The (The et al. 2000) who considered the elements of denial and cognitive distortion exhibited by a patient when being given news that they do not want to hear. The diversity of psychology shown by these patients is virtually unique to this group and a firm grasp of the essential elements is vital if the district nurse is going to handle the situation both professionally and well. The concept of â€Å"a good death† (Seale C et al. 2003) is one that is frequently cited in the modern literature and a fundamental prerequisite to a good death is that the patient is surr ounded and treated by healthcare professionals who have broad understanding of the psychological issues that are relevant to this spectrum of patient. (Wilkerson, S. A et al. 1996) There are many patients who confront the inevitability of death with a stoical inevitability that makes their management a relatively straightforward matter (Wadensten et al. 2003). The patients that we shall specifically consider in this segment however, are those who have a positive diagnosis of a life threatening condition but employ a number of coping mechanisms so that they do not have to directly confront the possibility of imminent death. These mechanisms can range from false optimism right through to frank and abject denial (Weeks et al 1998). We have already considered some of the ethical implications of autonomy and consent earlier in this essay, but they also are of great relevance in this section. It follows that if a patient is to have any degree of meaningful input into their treatment plans and consideration of the various options that are open to them, they must be both fully aware of, and quite prepared to confront, the implications of the situation that they find themselves in. If they chose to distort some or any of the relevant facts of the case, it equally follows that they cannot make a reasoned and rational decision about the options and choices that they have in front of them. Once again we return to the issue and concept of framing the presentation, the only difference here is that it is generally the patient who deliberately distorts the frame rather than it being distorted or manipulated by the healthcare professionals. This specifically is the issue that The and his colleagues considered in their paper (The et al. 2000). We should start a consideration of this issue however, with a reference to an earlier paper by Jennings (1997) who described the â€Å"emotional roller coaster† experienced by patients who deal with a malignant diagnosis and that this â€Å"evolution of emotional landscapes† can be predicted with a degree of certainty. This can be best examined with a verbatim extract from the The paper which refers to patients with small cell carcinoma of the lung: â€Å"False optimism about recovery is usually developed during the (first) course of chemotherapy and was most prevalent when the cancer could no longer be seen in the x ray pictures. This optimism tended to vanish when the tumour recurred, but it could develop again, though to a lesser extent, during further courses of chemotherapy. Patients gradually found out the facts about their poor prognosis, partly because of physical deterioration and partly through contact with fellow patients who were in a more advanced stage of the illness and were dying. False optimism about recovery was the result an association between doctors activism and patients adherence to the treatment calendar and to the recovery plot, which allowed them not to acknowledge explicitly what they should and could know. The doctor did and did not want to pronounce a death sentence and the patient did and did not want to hear it. Clearly an understanding of the psychology of what colours the patient’s reactions is vital to the district nurse if she is to handle this type of situation both professionally and empathetically. If we take a completely detached and dispassionate consideration of this situation the healthcare professional can say with almost complete certainty, that the patient with a positive diagnosis of small cell carcinoma of the lung is going to die. Statistically we know that over 90% of patients are dead within two years of diagnosis and the overall five year survival figures are nil. (Seale C et al. 2003) The practicality of the situation is therefore that it clearly makes sense to discuss options in terms of treatment, palliation and support as soon as a positive diagnosis is made. In real terms, this is rarely done because healthcare professionals frequently find it difficult to effectively pronounce a â€Å"death sentence† on patients. In this respect the psychology of the situation is as much a reflection of the attitudes and feelings of the healthcare professionals as it is of the patient. On a fictional level one can cite the classic literary example of A J Cronin’s Dr Findlay (Cronin A J 1934) who disagreed with his partner Dr Cameron. Dr Findlay felt strongly that the eponymous Mrs McIver should be told of her hopeless prognosis on the grounds of being completely truthful with the patient and this was against the advice of the older, more experienced partner, Dr Cameron who had been hitherto managing the situation by keeping the lady’s spirits high by telling her how well she was looking at each occasion he had contact with her. Dr Findlay confronts the situation by telling Mrs McIver the truth and within a few days she has died. The relevance of the story is seen at the end where Dr Findlay is depicted talking to the dead lady’s husband and Dr Findlay expresses his shock at the speed at which the old lady died and the husband concludes the episode by observing that: â€Å"She was doing really well until you took away from her the one thing that she had left – and that was hope†. In short, this episode highlights some of the difficulties and dilemmas that are frequently faced by healthcare professionals in general and district nurses in particular. The practicality of the situation could have been handled better with a more thorough understanding of the thought processes and psychological mechanisms employed by Mrs McIver in her last few weeks. One can see the point of view of Dr Findlay who took the view that the lady would not have been in any realistic position to make appropriate arrangements to confront her own death if she had never faced the possibility in the management plan that Dr Cameron had adopted. Dr Findlay’s approach could be argued to have allowed her to consider a number of timely treatment options if the truth was confronted. The fact of the matter was that she chose to actively collude with the optimistic approach of Dr Cameron and she derived strength and the ability to cope from the transparent belief (a cognitive distortion) that her prognosis was not hopeless. Dr Cameron was clearly of the opinion that this was of greater benefit to her than confronting her imminent death. What the story does not tell us (and we can only surmise) is that Dr Cameron, in common with many other real healthcare professionals, also has psychological difficulties in dealing with the subject himself. A number of different mechanisms may be active in this situation. It is possible that, by telling a patient that they are soon to die, it may challenge the notion that medical science can cure everything and that healthcare professionals are infallible (sadly, a still all to common belief). Equally it could be that the healthcare professionals involved do not like to be vicariously reminded of their own mortality and therefore collude willingly with the patient’s false optimism. Others again may take a rational view that â€Å"if the patient wants to know the truth then they will ask, if they don’t want to know then they won’t ask† and thereby actively avoid confronting the situation (Curtis J R. 2000) The The paper examines this issue in considerable depth with a commendable degree of scientific scrutiny. In the words of the paper, the authors suggest that: The problem of patient / doctor collusion does actually require an â€Å"active, patient orientated approach from the doctor†. A practical and novel solution to this problem is suggested in the form of the use of a â€Å"treatment broker† who is defined as: â€Å"a person who is trusted by both patient and doctor and who can help both parties to clarify and communicate their (otherwise implicit) assumptions and expectations†. The’s analysis suggested that the majority of patients in the study did actively want to know if the illness that they had was terminal with over 85% stating that they would wish to be told the truth rather than be given false optimism in an unrealistic fashion. This is contrasted with the finding that, in the study, when a patient was given a terminal diagnosis, the next question was almost invariably a variation of â€Å"what are the chances of a cure?† (Meredith et al 1996). It is also the case that other studies on the psychology of this type of situation have shown that when patients ask about their condition (and this applies not specifically to terminal conditions) they do not want to hear anything other than good news (Costain et al 1999). This argument is extrapolated even further in a study by Leydon and his co-workers (Leydon et al 2000) who provide an excellent qualitative study into patient’s reactions and they cite examples of patients who were interviewed directly after a recorded conversation with a healthcare professional and who overtly denied that they had been given a terminal diagnosis even though this was demonstrably not true. An interesting twist in these discussions of the psychology of the situation is provided by Dean (Dean 2002), who offers a specific insight into the way patients perceive the differences between nurses and other healthcare professionals. He takes the arguments of false optimism and overt denial and examines them further. Again, this paper is specifically concerned with the patient with a terminal diagnosis, and it looked at the differences in the content and tone of the conversations that patients had with both doctors and nurses. A significant finding from this paper was that a patient may choose to overtly collude with the doctor during discussions of â€Å"a cure† but within a very short space of time may choose to talk in a much more open way with a nurse when pretences of a cure are actively dropped. Dean suggests that â€Å"such a dichotomy of approach is not unusual†. He suggests that: Patients may well feel a need for a theatrical faà §ade to bolster their own psychological states as well as to collude with the doctor and indicate that they are remaining positive and confident in the doctor’s ability to try to achieve a cure. And this suggestion is echoed and expanded in the Curtis paper (Curtis 2000) with the observation that, in their more candid moments patients may well wish to get a more â€Å"down to earthâ€Å" response, which they perceive that they will get from the nurse, who they think may not require a faà §ade or even indulge in the sophisticated game play of the doctor. Lynn (Lynn 2001) adds a counter-intuitive note of caution for the nurse with the thought that this situation requires a great deal of careful handling by the nurse, as the psychological mechanism that underlies the nursing approach is that the patient may actually be looking for reassurance and (possibly unexpected) reinforcement of their own false optimism. This is an exemplification of the constant calls in the literature for a holistic and patient centred approach to patient care rather than a blanket approach to this type of clinical problem. The rest of The’s paper is concerned with the psychological theory behind the explanations of just why it is that patients do adopt these defensive positions and just why it is that healthcare professionals frequently collude with them on this issue. It is not particularly relevant to explore this in any further detail as the point is clearly made that a basic understanding of the mechanisms by which patients cope with their adversity and the psychological constructs that are frequently presented in these circumstances is of great importance to the nurse who has to deal with, interpret and empathise with the patient’s particular needs at any given time in their illness trajectory. Nurses are often involved, both overtly and in their everyday work, in the business of Health Promotion. Psychology plays a very important part in the overall success and implementation of health promotion strategies on a both a population and an individual level. The theoretical basis of much recent work in the field of Health Promotion is in the concept of the Attitude-Behaviour theory (A-B theory) (Rise J 2000). This theory suggests that the optimum change in behaviour patterns (at least in the field of health and self-interest) is achieved with the optimum change in attitude (or â€Å"realignment† in the jargon). We opened this essay with a reference to the Theory of Rational Choice. An offshoot of this theory (the Theory of Reasoned Action) modifies the A-B Theory to the extent that it provides a model framework by which one can assess the many divergent processes by which attitudes guide behaviour. The hypothesis states that if people can become highly motivated to make a correct decision and are in a position (because they have been given relevant information), then they are likely to spontaneously engage in a â€Å"deliberate and thoughtful process in deciding how to behave† (Rise J 2000). In the context of Health Education (which was the field that the theories were originally developed in) the theory suggests that if people are given sufficient and persuasive information in relation to their health, then a significant proportion will spontaneously indulge in lifestyle changing activity which can be consistent with healthier living. The significance of these theories is that, if t he nurse has a remit to promote a healthier lifestyle (which is arguably part of a professional remit), she is most likely to have the greatest success in providing significant amounts of information to patients rather than simply dictating to them how they should alter their lifestyle without any significant explanation. This comment effectively brings us full circle to the concept of compliance and conformance as postulated by Marinker. Another issue that has deep seated psychological implications, is the current trend towards teambuilding in primary health care. The ramifications of this concept are huge, and therefore we intend to only discuss the issue by considering a number of the most relevant points. To a large extent, team building overlaps with the concept of multidisciplinary team working. This move has required a redistribution of both power and authority (and thereby a redistribution of responsibility) within the team. (Shortell S M et al. 1998).The psychological implications of this are that if one considers the NHS of more than about twenty years ago its structure was more isolationist and based on individual practice (DHSS 1988). Individual speciality teams and individuals worked in a degree of comparative isolation and this also implied a greater degree of individual responsibility than they have at present. This change has brought about a number of major changes in areas such as ethics and work prac tices which are not particularly relevant to our topic in this essay (and therefore will not be discussed further), and also the psychology of working, which clearly is. The first consideration is the psychology behind the concept of leadership. Leadership is clearly important if one is to have an effective team. In psychological terms styles of leadership can be divided into several categories. The two most prominent being congruent leadership and transformational leadership. A full discus

Julia Ward Howe VS John Steinbeck :: essays research papers

Julia Ward Howe VS John Steinbeck   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Mine eyes have seen the glory†, are the words that begin The Battle Hymn of the Republic. A song that is about being virtuous and about an unrelenting faith in god. The Grapes of Wrath is a novel written by John Steinbeck that portrays 1930’s and the Great Depression. The styles and form of writing and portraying themes are different. Julia chose to write lyrics for a melody that was well known while John chose to write a many page book. Both The Battle Hymn of the Republic and The Grapes of Wrath are works that were made to inspire the reader or singer to push forward.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To understand the hymn it is important to understand its origin. This is difficult because historians must find the origins of the lyrics and the melody. Both authors have yet to be proven in their identity. The lyrics were written by Julia Ward Howe. This fact is something that they are sure of. The melody however, still remains a mystery to many people. Historians have successfully traced the song to John Brown’s Body. This piece was first published in 1858. It had been sung in many versions for a large amount of time during the Civil War. â€Å"And soon thru-out the Sunny South the slaves shall all be free† are lyrics that were used by the Negro regiments. As music researches looked deeper into the song, they found that john Brown’s Body had an extreme melodic similarities to an older revival hymn. This hymn was entitled Say, Brother, Will You Meet Us. â€Å" The earliest written verses appeared in 1858. The first copyright was registered on November 27th 1858, by G. S. Scofield in New York City† (Allen 1).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lieutenant Chandler, in writing of Sherman's March to the Sea, tells that when the troops were halted at Shady Dale, Georgia, the regimental band played 'John Brown's Body,' whereupon a number of Negro girls coming from houses supposed to have been deserted, formed a circle around the band, and in a solemn and dignified manner danced to the tune. The Negro girls, with faces grave and demeanor characteristic of having performed a ceremony of religious tenor, retired to their cabins.

Healthcare: Health Insurance and Fraud E. Ethical

Fraud, Waste and Abuse in the Medicare System: A Proactive Approach Course Project Outline Team A: The Prairie State Bulls Julie GIldemeister Elena Hallars Teresa O’Brien Latia Phelps Laura Wimberley HSM 546 Health Insurance and Managed Care Vernice Johnson-Warren Keller Graduate School of Business Management March 17, 2013 Synopsis We propose to discuss the problem of fraud, waste and abuse in Medicare and Medicaid from the viewpoint of a board of directors of a community healthcare system.We agree that a proactive course of action, while initially more expensive, will result in a far better outcome for the system, its providers, and its patients. It will lead to better relations not only with the government but also with our commercial MCO plans. This issue will be addressed on several fronts: legislative loopholes, weaknesses in electronic technology, ethical lapses on the part of providers, and enforcement failures. I. Executive Summary A. Environment B. Rules and regulati ons of Medicare and Medicaid C.Healthcare Reform Legislation D. Problems with Fraud E. Ethical Considerations of Fraud II. Problem Statement A. Fraud, waste and abuse in the Medicare and Medicaid system B. Legislative loopholes C. Weaknesses in electronic medical records D. Ethical lapses in providers E. Common errors in billing and coding F. Enforcement failures III. Literature Review A. Course text B. Fraud, waste and abuse of Medicare/Medicaid funds C. IT and EMR issues D. Ethical training of providers E. Enforcement failures IV. Problem Analysis A.Identification of opportunities for fraud in a healthcare system B. Enforcement of Medicare/Medicaid claims reporting regulations C. Counteracting or preventing a climate of fraud waste and abuse V. Solutions and Implementation A. Streamlining enforcement efforts B. Tightening IT loopholes C. Creating provider incentives for responsible behavior in coding and billing D. Pattern review and claims review to catch trends indicative of fra ud, waste or abuse VI. Justification A. Cost of fraud, waste and abuse, especially in Medicare claims reclamation processesB. Cost of failure to comply with rules and regulations C. Improvement in facility/provider/payer relations D. Improvement in cash flow and claims payment E. Improvement in patient and community relations VII. Conclusion VIII. References Aldhizer III, G. R. (2009). Medicare and Medicaid Fraud and Errors: A Ticking Time Bomb That Must be Defused. Journal Of Government Financial Management, 58(4), 12-20. Boerner, C. M. (2010). 60 Minutes Story on Medicare Fraud. Journal Of Health Care Compliance, 12(1), 29-65. Dietz, D. K. , & Snyder, H. 2007). Internal control differences between community health centers that did or did not experience fraud. Research In Healthcare Financial Management, 11(1), 91-102. Evans, R. D. , & Porche, D. A. (2005). The nature and frequency of medicare/medicaid fraud and neutralization techniques among speech, occupational, and physical the rapists. Deviant Behavior, 26(3), 253-270. doi:10. 1080/01639620590915167. Hambleton, M. (2011). Los Angeles Health Care Fraud Prevention Summit: Moving from a Sickness to Wellness Model of Compliance.Journal Of Health Care Compliance,13(1), 19-24. Hoppel, A. M. (2012). Career Code Red. (Cover story). Clinician Reviews, 22(10), 1-8. Kongstvedt, P. R. (2007). Essentials of Managed Health Care (5th ed). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett. Moses, R. E. , & Jones, D. (2011). Physician Assistants in Health Care Fraud: Vicarious Liability. Journal Of Health Care Compliance, 13(2), 51-75. Robin, D. W. , & Gershwin, R. J. (2010). RAC Attack—Medicare Recovery Audit Contractors: What Geriatricians Need to Know. Journal Of The American Geriatrics Society, 58(8), 1576-1578. oi:10. 1111/j. 1532-5415. 2010. 02974. x Sparrow, M. K. (2008). Fraud in the U. S. Health-Care System: Exposing the Vulnerabilities of Automated Payments Systems. Social Research, 75(4), 1151-1180. Steinhoff, J. C. (2008). FORENSIC AUDITING: A Window to Identifying and Combating Fraud, Waste and Abuse. Journal Of Government Financial Management, 57(2), 10-15. Thorpe, N. , Deslich, S. , Sikula, S. , & Coustasse, A. (2012). Combating Medicare Fraud: A Struggling Work In Progress. Franklin Business & Law Journal, 2012(4), 95-107.

Pride in Ancient Greek

Pride in Ancient Greek This paper discusses the character and behavior of two Heroes in the Iliad with the aim of explaining the Geeks concept of pride. Considering the lives of Achilles and Patroclus, as presented in the Iliad, it is clear that for ancient Greek heroes, honor meant everything. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Pride in Ancient Greek specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In actual sense, a Greek warrior or man would rather choose to die than be ashamed or embarrassed by someone else. Honor meant so much to them that they did everything to attain it. Honor was the lifetime goal of every ancient Greek man and people sought it at all costs. Unfortunately, their concept of honor could be interpreted as foolhardy pride in our days. As will be shown through focus on Achilles and Patroclus, had they not been driven by their pride, they would not have met with their downfall; the way they did. Achilles was a great Greek warrior who had helped the Greek with his might and skills. Like all Greek men, he wanted to do his people proud and the people were proud of him. However, his desire for honor leads to his downfall when he confronts the king over a woman. He had been given the woman as a prize for his valor in war against the Trojans. When the king takes away the woman (prize he had given to Achilles), Achilles out of pride challenges the king and refuses to go to war. His decision not to go to war against the Trojans is what prompted Patroclus to pick up his armor to face Hector. Moreover, apart from refusing to fight for the Greek, Achilles out of pride chooses to argue or disobey the gods. Priam, his mother intervenes, and again out of pride, Achilles chooses glory over a long life. In the life of Achilles, one can see pride or honor being prioritized over every other important thing. For instance, it is out of pride that Achilles refuses to go to battle prompting his friend Patroclus to stand in to lead the Greek armies against the Trojans. Patroclus, just like Achilles, was a great warrior. He was one of the great warriors from the Greek side and would have been instrumental in defeating Hectors on behalf of the Achaeans. Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, desire for honor and pride got the better of him. Hectors was more skilled and the only person who could match him from the Greek side was Achilles. Patroclus had been warned against engaging or fighting Hector because he was not his match. However, as it would have been expected of any Greek hero, Patroclus goes against every warning that he should not engage Hectors in a battle. Having won a number of battles, he is so full of himself that he thinks not engaging or fighting Hectors is a cowardly act. Secondly, he also stands up to Hectors to save himself the shame of having failed his people in a battl e. Consequently, this willfulness leads him into dying at the hands of Hectors. In conclusion, from the two examples given, it is clear that the Greek priced pride over all other values such as safety. It can also be noted that desire for honor and pride, among Greek heroes, was what propelled them to great heights but also what led to their downfall. In search for honor, the heroes did their people proud but out of pride they often became willful and untactful leading to their downfall.

Summary of Mike Rose Essays

Summary of Mike Rose Essays Summary of Mike Rose Essay Summary of Mike Rose Essay Mike developed an interest in psychology early in life. Mike attended college where he studied social and physiological sciences and taught for a period often years. Mike describes cultural beliefs such as; intelligence being a measure of ones level of education, or a Job title defining a persons intellect. Our culture would have us believe a physically demanding Job to require less intelligence. Mike recalls his mother, Rosier Rose, at work in a local restaurant. Observing customers actions and DOD language allowed Rosier to recognize a customers dissatisfaction with a meal or need for some additional item. Rosier could multi-task, communicate orders in short form and created her own memory strategy so she could remember individual orders. The physical aspect of the Job was tasking to Rosier so she worked smarter, grouping Jobs and eliminating wasted time. Mikes observations of his mother at the work, to him, defined the adult worker. Joe, Mikes uncle, dropped out of school in the ninth grade and started work for the railroad. He Joined the navy, returned to the railroad, and later Joined his brother at General Motors. Joe was very good at recognizing problems and developing solutions to correct them. Joe relates the shop floor to being at school, a continuous learning environment. Joe became foreman and got promoted to supervisor of the paint and body department. Joe found ways to improve the efficiency and developed a new spray nozzle design. To ease the stress associated with the repetitive activities, Joe implemented Job rotation. For eight years, Mike studied the thought process of workers such as Rose and Joe. Mike recognized the use of creative thinking and its affect on the worker. Mike describes how easily we can overlook the remarkable cognitive abilities of the blue collar worker. Mikes study of the workers brings to light many activities, mental and physical, not typically associated with occupations we believe to be menial. Clearly, intelligence and cognitive ability cannot be defined by a title or Job function.

Strategic Management Outline Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategic Management - Outline Example Resources a firm acts as its competitive strength when strategically exploited. The exploitation of organization resources with a view of creating sustainable advantage occur over time. Strategic resource positioning The performance of a firm would depend on a number of factors. First, product viability depends on its cost in comparison to similar products and the capacity of the product to meet the demands in the market. Strategic placement of product would dictate product innovation; which includes designing, composition, and conditions, which influences its processing. The uniqueness of the product does not only influence imitation of the product, but also the identity in the market. Firms whose products are not viable innovate or shift in order to remain economically viable. How resources meet consumer demands The consumer’s behavior defines whether the product is valuable. This attribute would dictate the success of an industry. Industries consider product innovation stra tegies, which would produce unique response in the market. It means that the product has to be hard to imitate as well as identified by many consumers. Many firms consider product innovation strategy, which would create a product that is hard to substitute as well as rare in supply. Products, which create satisfaction, would retain the consumers over a time. Types of resources Resources of a firm are critical to its success. These resources are either tangible or intangible. Tangible assets include infrastructure, reputation, and database while intangible assets are strategies of the firm. The ability of a firm to compete in the market depends on its asset mobilization. Strategic resources The influence that a firm exerts in the market would depend on the strategies it develops in the following areas: financial assets, human assets, reputation assets, capabilities and competencies, and intellectual assets. Mobilization of the assets with an aim of achieving the organization goals in fluences the positioning of the firm. Reputation assets The viability of a firm would depend on the reputation it commands in the market. For a firm to build a good reputation it would consider cost of the product, competitors influence, consumer behavior, and economic constraints (Haberberg and Rieple, 2007:8). The above factors influence the approach that a firm would take towards building its reputation. Firms rebrand their products in response to consumer behavior in order to keep the product viable in the market. Relational assets Competitiveness of a firm does not only rely on reputational assets, but also relational assets. The internal environment of the firm would influence its productivity. The relationship between various departments must focus on the interest of the firm. Internal relationship in the firm would influence the work out put of the firm. This will in turn influence consumers’ satisfaction. For instance, satisfaction of the employees would contribute t o satisfaction of the consumers because the employees would strive towards achieving the goals of the firm. The relationship between the firm and the government will define its operations in the market. Thus, the relation must demonstrate an interest in serving the consumers. Dynamic capabilities The ever-changing market conditions require dynamic approaches in organization’s functions. Firms must be ready to demonstrate innovation in a changing environment. The uncertainty of the future dictates that a firm has to change its

Discussion 2 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion 2 - Coursework Example A lot of care was ensured to enhance the interviewees to have a great trust to support the shared learning experience. They ensured that they maximized on their learning by examining own reactions to the responses of the interviewees. They were at least two or three different researchers who interpreted each of the interviews (Kram, Wasserman & Yip, 2012). This clinical approach assumed that all the experiences of individuals are shaped by personal and contextual factors already known as the main theme of the research. The collaboration between the researcher and research participant enhanced the discovery and understanding of such multiple influences (Rousseau, 2005). Their hunch that the work identity of the interviewees was shaped by their work setting and their age and previous experiences in their career was confirmed by the responses given. The partnership with the first study enabled them to demonstrate differing career histories and current contexts in the work situations. Thus, the two studies greatly